Yang Tu (10 January 1875-17 September 1931), student of Wang K'ai-yün and advocate of constitutional monarchy who became an adviser to Yuan Shih-k'ai. In 1 9 1 5 he organized the Ch'ou-an-hui [society to plan for stability] to implement Yuan's plans for establishing a monarchy.

Hsiangt'an, Hunan, was the birthplace of Yang Tu. He lost his father, a scholar-official, at an early age and was put under the care of a paternal uncle, Yang Jui-sheng, who had once served as military commandant at Chaoyang-chen, where Wang Shih-chen (q.v.), subsequently one of the "Big Three" in the Peiyang military clique, had been his bodyguard. Yang Tu and his younger sister Yang Chuang became students of Wang K'ai-yün (q.v.), a distinguished classical scholar and poet from Hsiangt'an. When Yang Chuang later married Wang's fourth son Wang Tzu-yü, Yang Tu became even closer to his teacher. He followed Wang to the Tung-chou Academy at Hengshan, Hunan, and he favorably impressed him with his originality in interpretation of the classics.

After passing the provincial examinations held in Changsha in the autumn of 1897, Yang Tu continued his studies at the Tung-chou Academy. While studying Chinese classics he also became interested in Western studies and in the reform programs which the Hunan provincial government was then sponsoring. Despite Wang K'ai-yvin's opposition, in March 1902 Yang left for Japan, where he enrolled at the Kobun Intensive Teacher Training School. Like many Chinese students in Japan at that time, Yang Tu soon became convinced of the necessity of reform for China. Under his supervision, in October 1902 a monthly called Yu-hsueh i-pien [overseas students' translations] was published. It was the first journal to be published by Chinese students in Japan. Yang stated in the inaugural editorial that the aim of the journal was to acquaint the Chinese people with new knowledge which would serve as a basis for transformation of their country. In addition to articles on education, military science, and foreign relations, it introduced new literature and advocated use of the pai-hua [the vernacular] in fiction for the purpose of rousing the spirit of the people. It advocated education in nationalism and self-government in Hunan as preliminary steps toward achieving revolution. Subsequently, Yang established the Hu-nan pien-i she [Hunan compilation and translation society], which published translations and textbooks for use in primary and middle schools.

In December 1902 Yang Tu returned to Hunan. In July 1903 he went to Peking for a special examination on political economy and emerged as the second-best candidate in the competition, the first being Liang Shih-i (q.v.). Immediately afterwards, however, both he and Liang were accused of being followers of K'ang Yu-wei and Liang Ch'i-ch'ao (qq.v.) and their names were removed from the list of successful candidates. Moreover, an imperial edict for their arrest was issued. Yang Tu hurriedly left Peking for Shanghai and then went to Japan. This incident aroused much criticism of the Ch'ing government, and, ironically, made Yang Tu famous among Chinese intellectuals. After staying in Japan for about six months, Yang Tu returned to Shanghai. In the summer of 1904 he again won public applause when he acquired documents pertaining to foreign Investments in the Canton-Hankow railway and sent them to Liang Ch'i-ch'ao for pubhcation in the Shanghai Shih-pao. He next published a pamphlet entitled Yueh-Han t'ieh-lu chiao-she pi-mi tang-an [secret archives of the negotiations over the Canton-Hankow railway]. Finally, he wrote the "Song of Hunan Youth," which contained the lines: "If China is truly to face national extinction, it will happen only after all the people of Hunan have died." In November 1904 he again had to flee to Japan. Yang Tu declined Sun Yat-sen's invitation to join the T'ung-meng-hui in 1905 on the grounds that he was for constitutional monarchy, but he remained on friendly terms with Sun and many other Chinese revolutionaries in Japan, including Chang Chi and Huang Hsing (qq.v.). In fact, Yang was a leader of Chinese students, being the secretary general of the Chinese Students' General Association, of which Lin Ch'ang-min, Chiang Fang-chen, and Chang Chi (qq.v.) served as secretaries. In December 1905 Chinese students in Japan called a strike in protest against the control measures announced by the Japanese ministry of education. They demanded that the Chinese legation intervene for the abolition of the new rules, failing which they would all return to China. Yang Tu, however, suggested that negotiations be conducted for the revision of certain of the rules, saying that it would not help matters for all students to return to China en bloc. The more violent students declared that the conduct of the two Yangs (referring to Yang Tu and the Chinese minister to Japan Yang Chu) was inexcusable, and some even waited for Yang Tu with weapons in an attempt to kill him. Yang disguised himself and fled Tokyo for the countryside. The trouble only subsided in January of the following year. At this time, Hsiung Hsi-ling (q.v.) accompanied Tuan-fang (ECCP, II, 780-82), special envoy of the Ch'ing government for the study of constitutional government, on a tour of Europe and the United States. When they passed through Japan, Hsiung entrusted Yang Tu with the task of studying and translating the constitutions and laws of different countries. Yang seized the opportunity and (together with Liang Gh'i-ch'ao) submitted a number ofrecommendations, some of which were accepted by Tuanfang and his committee. Though an advocate of constitutional monarchy, Yang Tu was not entirely in agreement with the K'ang Yu-wei and Liang Ch'i-ch'ao group. He rejected Liang's suggestion about organizing a new political party to counter Sun. When the Hsing-min ts'ung-pao [renovation of the people] and the Min-pao [people's journal] engaged in their fierce debates in 1905-6, he remained aloof from the battle. In January 1907 he founded Chung-kuo hsin-pao [new China journal] and the Cheng-su tiaoch'a hui [society for investigation of political behavior]. Despite these activities, however, Yang Tu's attitude remained ambiguous and inconsistent. Although he was not anti- Manchu, he believed that the Ch'ing government should and could be replaced—not by resorting to force, but by exercise of public opinion. In the end, his vacillation and aloofness estranged him from both the Chinese revolutionaries and the constitutionalists. In the autumn of 1907 Yang Tu returned to Hunan because of the death of his uncle Yang Jui-sheng. In December, while still observing the traditional mourning period, he wrote a memorial to the throne advocating the early convocation of a parliament. The memorial also was signed by Wang K'ai-yün and others. In the spring of 1908, Yang went to Peking to become an attache to the Hsien-cheng pien-ch'a kuan [bureau for the drawing up of regulations for constitutional government]. In the capital he met Yuan Shih-k'ai (q.v.), who recommended him to Prince Ch'ing (ECCP, II, 964-65) and other court nobles. Encouraged by Yuan, he explained the idea of constitutional government to various high officials. When the Hsien-cheng kung-hui [association for constitutional government] was established in Peking, he became its chief executive officer. In May 1908 Yang suflTered a spate of unfavorable publicity when newspapers revealed that he had spent 2,000 yvian redeeming a sing-song girl for use as a concubine. The influential Ching-yeh hsun-pao [the struggle], of which Hu Shih (q.v.) was then an editor, and the Kobe Jih-hua hsin-pao were particularly critical. Accordingly, Yang renounced the girl and presented her to a friend, an action which did little, however, to mollify his critics. Yang Tu's influence further declined following the dismissal of Yuan Shih-k'ai in January 1909. In August 1911 Yang Tu was appointed director of the statistical bureau of "the royal cabinet," which had been established that April. After the revolution began in October, Yang Tu served as an intermediary between Yuan Shih-k'ai and the revolutionaries. Together with Wang Ching-wei (q.v.), he organized the Kuo-shih kung-chi hui [association for assisting national affairs], which was credited with making arrangements for the abdication of P'u-yi (q.v.). As Yuan's representative, he negotiated with Huang Hsing (q.v.), the leader of the revolutionary army in the Wuhan area. On 9 December 1911 he received a reply from Huang agreeing to the election of Yuan as the president of the republic. He was thus appointed by Yuan to accompany T'ang Shao-yi (q.v.) to the south for peace talks. Yang Tu's pronouncement that Yuan was China's Napoleon and would restore monarchical government aroused wide criticism. Furthermore, in opposition to T'ang, he insisted that Yuan should remain in the north. Accordingly, when T'ang became premier in early 1912, Yang Tu was excluded from the cabinet.

In the first two years of the republican era, Yang spent most of his time in Tsingtao. When Hsiung Hsi-ling became premier in 1913, he nominated Yang for minister of communications, but because of the opposition of Liang Shih-i, chief secretary in the presidential office, Hsiung's suggestion was dropped. Yuan then asked Yang Tu to be minister of education, but he declined. In December 1913, Yang was ordered by Yuan to supervise the development of commerce in Hankow. About six months later he left that post to become a member of the Ts'an-cheng-yüan [political council]. During this period, he persuaded his teacher Wang K'ai-yün to take the post of director of the national history bureau in Peking. When Wang resigned in early 1915, Yang Tu was appointed deputy director of the bureau, in temporary charge of its affairs.

Meanwhile, Yang Tu continued to court the favor of Yuan Shih-k'ai. In April 1915 Yang published an essay entitled "Chün-hsien chiukuo lun" [national salvation through constitutional monarchy] in which he argued that only constitutional monarchy was suitable for China. Yuan, delighted by the essay, ordered it reprinted and circulated. In August, Yang announced the organization of the Ch'ou-anhui [society to plan for stability], and he became its director. The original members of this organization (known as the liu chün-tzu, or six gentlemen) included Yen Fu and Liu Shih-p'ei (qq.v.), although Yen later claimed that he was "abducted" by Yang Tu. The purpose of the Ch'ou-an-hui, as its prospectus proclaimed, "is to study whether monarchism or republicanism is more suitable for China." Yang asked military and civil authorities to show their preference for either monarchism or republicanism. Despite vehement criticism and protest, he proceeded with Yuan's and his plans for a monarchy. In October, he announced the dissolution of the Ch'ou-an-hui and the organization of the Hsien-cheng hsieh-chin-hui [constitutional government promotion society]. In early 1916, as the anti-Yuan movement gained momentum, Yang Tu became an important target of criticism. In April, he asked Yuan Shih-k'ai to permit him to resign. When Yuan died in June, Yang Tu was indicted for "betraying" the republic. He escaped punishment by fleeing to Tsingtao. In 1926 Yang Tu joined the Kuomintang and moved to Peking, where he studied painting with Ch'i Pai-shih (q.v.) and became a Buddhist convert. In 1927 he reportedly conducted some underground work on behalf of the Kuomintang. A year later, he moved to Shanghai, where he made a living by selling his calUgraphy and paintings. Because the fees he charged were high, he had few patrons. Later, he managed to supplement his income by serving as private secretary to Tu Yueh-sheng (q.v.).

In 1930 Yang Tu joined the Tzu-yu ta-t'ung meng, or Freedom League, organized by Lu Hsün (Chou Shu-jen) and T'ien Han (qq.v.). In June, he became a member of the Chung-kuo she-hui k'o-hsüeh-chia lien-meng [league of Chinese social scientists], an organization of leftist intellectuals. It is said that Chou En-lai (q.v.) frequently visited him during this period. Yang Tu died of tuberculosis at Shanghai on 17 September 1931. He was survived by two sons: Yang Kung-shu, a chemist; and Yang Kung-chao, a mining engineer. Yang Tu also had a daughter named Yang Yün-hui, who married Kuo Yu-shou, a sometime senior staff member of UNESCO.